Declaration of Tokyo
From Wikipedia, the free
encyclopedia
The Declaration of Tokyo is a set of international guidelines for physicians concerning torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment in relation to detention and imprisonment, which was adopted in October 1975 during the 29th General assembly of the World Medical Association, and later editorially updated by the WMA in France, May 2005 and 2006. It declares torture to be "contrary to the laws of humanity," [1] and antithetical to the "higher purpose" of the physician, which is to "alleviate the distress of his or her fellow human being." [2] The policy states that doctors should refuse to participate in, condone, or give permission for torture, degradation, or cruel treatment of prisoners or detainees. According to the policy, a prisoner who refuses to eat should not be fed artificially against his will, provided that he or she is judged to Preamble
It is the privilege of the physician to practise medicine in the service of humanity, to preserve and restore bodily and mental health without distinction as to persons, to comfort and to ease the suffering of his or her patients. The utmost respect for human life is to be maintained even under threat, and no use made of any medical knowledge contrary to the laws of humanity. For the purpose of this Declaration, torture is defined as the deliberate, systematic or wanton infliction of physical or mental suffering by one or more persons acting alone or on the orders of any authority, to force another person to yield information, to make a confession, or for any other reason.Declaration
1.
The
physician
shall not countenance, condone or participate in the practice of torture or
other forms of cruel, inhuman or degrading procedures, whatever the offense of
which the victim of such procedures is suspected, accused or guilty, and
whatever the victim's beliefs or motives, and in all situations, including
armed conflict and civil strife.
2.
The
physician shall not provide any premises, instruments, substances or knowledge
to facilitate the practice of torture or other forms of cruel, inhuman or
degrading treatment or to diminish the ability of the victim to resist such
treatment.
3.
When
providing medical assistance to detainees or prisoners who
are, or who could later be, under interrogation,
physicians should be particularly careful to ensure the confidentiality of all
personal medical information. A breach of the Geneva Conventions shall in any case be reported
by the physician to relevant authorities. The physician shall not use nor allow
to be used, as far as he or she can, medical knowledge or skills, or health
information specific to individuals, to facilitate or otherwise aid any
interrogation, legal or illegal, of those individuals.
4.
The
physician shall not be present during any procedure during which torture or any
other forms of cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment is used or threatened.
5.
A
physician must have complete clinical independence in deciding upon the care of
a person for whom he or she is medically responsible. The physician's
fundamental role is to alleviate the distress of his or her fellow human
beings, and no motive, whether personal, collective or political, shall prevail
against this higher purpose.
6.
Where
a prisoner refuses nourishment and is considered by the
physician as capable of forming an unimpaired and rational judgment concerning
the consequences of such a voluntary refusal of nourishment, he or she shall
not be fed artificially. The decision as to the capacity of
the prisoner to form such a judgment should be confirmed by at least one other
independent physician. The consequences of the refusal of nourishment shall be
explained by the physician to the prisoner.
7.
The
World Medical Association will support,
and should encourage the international community, the National Medical
Associations and fellow physicians to support, the physician and his or her
family in the face of threats or reprisals resulting from a refusal to condone
the use of torture or other forms of cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment.[3]
References
1.
World Medical Association,
Declaration of Tokyo. Preamble.
World Medical
Association, Declaration of Tokyo. Section 5.
World Medical Association. Declaration of Tokyo (1975). Adopted by the World Medical Association, Tokyo, Japan. Octobe Declaration of Tokyo
A statement by the World Medical Association in 1975 on torture, cruel, inhumane or other degrading treatment or punishment related to detention and imprisonment, in particular reference
List of most valuable crops and livestock products
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The following list, derived from the
statistics of the Food and Agricultural
Organization (FAO) unless otherwise noted, lists the most important
agricultural products produced by the countries of the world.[1]
The value and production of individual crops varies substantially from year to
year as prices fluctuate on the world and country markets and weather and other
factors influence production.
Rice in 2012 was the most valuable agricultural crop
in the world. It was second to maize (corn) in the quantity produced of cereal
products. This rice field is in Cambodia.
|
rank
|
Crop
|
value
in thousand US dollars (2012)
|
production
in metric tons (2012)
|
Top
producing country and value (2011)
|
|
1
|
Rice, paddy
|
$186,667,648
|
722,599,583
|
$49.6 billion (Mainland China)
|
|
2
|
Cow's milk, whole, fresh
|
$183,583,111
|
614,578,723
|
$27.6 billion (United
States)
|
|
3
|
Cattle, meat
|
$170,272,001
|
63,031,582
|
$30.6 billion (United States)
|
|
4
|
Pig,
meat
|
$167,007,794
|
108,641,257
|
$77.9 billion (Mainland China)
|
|
5
|
Chicken, meat
|
$128,199,164
|
90,001,779
|
$24.4 billion (United States)
|
|
6
|
$84,281,536
|
701,395,334
|
$13.7 billion (Mainland China)
|
|
|
7
|
$65,903,601
|
262,037,569
|
$21.8 billion (United States)
|
|
|
8
|
$58,223,483
|
159,347,031
|
$17.9 billion (Mainland China)
|
|
|
9
|
$56,903,836
|
1,800,377,642
|
$23.9 billion (Brazil)
|
|
|
10
|
Maize (Corn)
|
$55,478,433
|
885,289,935
|
$26.4 billion (United States)
|
|
11
|
Eggs,
in shell
|
$53,998,997
|
65,181,280
|
$19.8 billion (Mainland China)
|
|
12
|
$49,681,577
|
373,158,351
|
$12.6 billion (Mainland China)
|
|
|
13
|
Vegetables, not elsewhere specified
|
$45,936,531
|
268,833,780
|
$25.3 billion (Mainland China)
|
|
14
|
$39,494,901
|
69,093,293
|
$5.2 billion (Mainland China)
|
|
|
15
|
Water
Buffalo milk
|
$37,673,032
|
95,888,113
|
$26.0 billion (India)
|
|
16
|
Cotton, lint
|
$37,363,750
|
26,143,049
|
$9.4 billion (Mainland China)
|
|
17
|
$31,706,244
|
75,484,671
|
$15.2 billion (Mainland China)
|
|
|
18
|
$29,721,954
|
107,142,187
|
$8.4 billion (India)
|
|
|
19
|
$24,924,197
|
256,404,044
|
$5.5 billion (Nigeria)
|
|
|
20
|
$23,338,979
|
38,953,166
|
$9.1 billion (India)
|
|
|
21
|
Sheep, meat
|
$22,406,097
|
8,229,068
|
$5.6 billion (Mainland China)
|
|
22
|
$22,000,000
|
8,034,000
|
$10.0 billion (est)[2]
(Brazil)
|
|
|
23
|
$20,753,874
|
47,703,805
|
$9.3 billion (Indonesia)
|
|
|
24
|
Onions, dry
|
$18,121,063
|
86,343,822
|
$5.2 billion (Mainland China)
|
|
25
|
Beans, dry and green
|
$17,490,000
|
$6.2 billion (Mainland China)
|
|
|
26
|
Peanuts, in shell
|
$17,226,072
|
40,016,584
|
$7.0 billion (Mainland China)
|
|
27
|
$16,450,780
|
20,545,421
|
$6.3 billion (Spain)
|
|
|
28
|
$15,260,000
|
$3.9 billion (Canada)
|
||
|
29
|
$13,320,000
|
$7.5 billion (Mainland China)
|
||
|
30
|
$12,790,000
|
$3.8 billion (Thailand)
|
||
|
31
|
$12,356,000
|
4,520,000
|
$4.1 billion (Mainland China)
|
|
|
32
|
$12,090,000
|
$3.8 billion (Brazil)
|
||
|
33
|
$11,580,000
|
$9.1 billion (Mainland China)
|
||
|
34
|
$11,560,000
|
$7.6 billion (Nigeria)
|
||
|
35
|
$10,920,000
|
$6.3 billion (Mainland China)
|
||
|
36
|
$10,840,000
|
$6.3 billion (Mainland China)
|
||
|
37
|
$10,200,000
|
4,082,000
|
$3.1 billion[3]
(Republic
of Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast))
|
|
|
38
|
Goat, meat
|
$9,970,000
|
$4.5 billion (Mainland China)
|
|
|
39
|
Sunflower seed
|
$9,830,000
|
$2.5 billion (Russia)
|
|
|
40
|
$9,790,000
|
$1.6 billion (France)
|
||
|
41
|
$9,770,000
|
$7.4 billion (Mainland China)
|
||
|
42
|
Buffalo, meat
|
$9,410,000
|
$4.0 billion (India)
|
|
|
43
|
$7,440,000
|
$6.6 billion (Mainland China)
|
||
|
44
|
Turkey, meat
|
$7,060,000
|
3.4 billion (United States)
|
|
|
45
|
$7,010, 000
|
$3.9 billion (Mainland China)
|
||
|
46
|
Duck, meat
|
$6,760,000
|
4.6 billion (Mainland China)
|
|
|
47
|
$6,190,000
|
$1.9 billion (India)
|
||
|
48
|
$6,100,000
|
$3.1 billion (Mainland China)
|
||
|
49
|
$5,559,000
|
$2.2 billion (United States)
|
||
|
50
|
$5,310,000
|
$0.9 billion (Mainland China)
|
||
|
51
|
$5,300,000
|
$1.8 billion (United States)
|
||
|
52
|
$5,040,000
|
$2.6 billion (Mainland China)
|
References
1.
Source: Food and
Agricultural Organization. http://faostat.fao.org/site/339/default.aspx, accessed 13 Aug 2013
International
Coffee Organization http://www.ico.org/trade_e.asp, accessed 14 Aug 2013
International Cacao Organization. http://www.icco.org/statistics/cocoa-prices/daily-prices.html, accessed 16 Aug 2 Renewable energy sources are ones which don't run out - which can be renewed. We can keep using them and using them, and we'll never run out. Examples of renewable sources include wind, water power (hydroelectric), and solar power (light from the sun).
Non-renewable energy sources are ones which do run out. As we use them to generate energy, they get used up, and can't be used a second time. There are three main non-renewable energy sources, which are fast running out: coal, oil and natural gas.
Non-renewable resource
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A coal mine in Wyoming, United
States. Coal,
produced over millions of years, is a finite and non-renewable resource on a
human time scale.
A non-renewable resource (also called
a finite resource) is a resource that does not renew itself at a sufficient
rate for sustainable economic extraction in meaningful human time-frames. An
example is carbon-based, organically-derived fuel. The original organic
material, with the aid of heat and pressure, becomes a fuel such as oil or gas.
Earth
minerals
and metal
ores, fossil
fuels (coal,
petroleum,
natural
gas) and groundwater in certain aquifers
are all non-renewable resources.In contrast, resources such as timber (when harvested sustainably) and wind (used to power energy conversion systems) are considered renewable resources, largely because their localized replenishment can occur within timeframes meaningful to humans.
Contents
- 1 Earth minerals and metal ores
- 2 Fossil fuels
- 3 Nuclear fuels
- 4 Renewable resources
- 5 Economic models
- 6 See also
- 7 References
- 8 External links
Earth minerals and metal ores
Further information: Mining
Earth minerals and metal ores
are other examples of non-renewable resources. The metals themselves are
present in vast amounts in Earth's crust,
and their extraction by humans only occurs where they are concentrated by natural
geological processes (such as heat, pressure, organic activity,
weathering and other processes) enough to become economically viable to
extract. These processes generally take from tens of thousands to millions of
years, through plate tectonics, tectonic subsidence and crustal
recycling.The localized deposits of metal ores near the surface which can be extracted economically by humans are non-renewable in human time-frames. There are certain rare earth minerals and elements that are more scarce and exhaustible than others. These are in high demand in manufacturing, particularly for the electronics industry.
Metal ores are considered vastly greater in supply to fossil fuels, because metal ores are formed by crustal-scale processes which make up a much larger portion of the Earth's near-surface environment, than those that form fossil fuels which are limited to areas where carbon-based life forms flourish, die, and are quickly buried.
Fossil fuels
Main article: Fossil
fuel
Further information: Oil
depletion
Natural resources such as coal, petroleum
(crude oil) and natural gas take thousands of
years to form naturally and cannot be replaced as fast as they are being
consumed. Eventually it is considered that fossil-based resources will become
too costly to harvest and humanity will need to shift its reliance to other
sources of energy. These resources are yet to be named.An alternative hypothesis is that carbon based fuel is virtually inexhaustible in human terms, if one includes all sources of carbon-based energy such as methane hydrates on the sea floor, which are vastly greater than all other carbon based fossil fuel resources combined. These sources of carbon are also considered non-renewable, although their rate of formation/replenishment on the sea floor is not known. However their extraction at economically viable costs and rates has yet to be determined.
At present, the main energy source used by humans is non-renewable fossil fuels. Since the dawn of internal combustion engine technologies in the 17th century, petroleum and other fossil fuels have remained in continual demand. As a result, conventional infrastructure and transport systems, which are fitted to combustion engines, remain prominent throughout the globe. The continual use of fossil fuels at the current rate is believed to increase global warming and cause more severe climate change.[1]
Nuclear fuels
Rössing uranium mine is the longest-running
and one of the largest open pit uranium mines in the world, every year it
produces eight percent of global uranium needs.[2]
Annual release of "technologically
enhanced"/concentrated Naturally occurring
radioactive material, uranium and thorium radioisotopes naturally found in coal and concentrated
in heavy/bottom coal ash and airborne fly ash.[3]
As predicted by ORNL to cumulatively amount to 2.9
million tons over the 1937-2040 period, from the combustion of an estimated 637
billion tons of coal worldwide.[4]
Main article: Nuclear
fuel
Further information: Nuclear power proposed as
renewable energy and Peak uranium
In 1987, the World Commission on
Environment and Development (WCED) an organization set up by but
independent from the United Nations classified
fission reactors that produce more fissile
nuclear fuel than they consume -i.e. breeder
reactors, and when it is developed, fusion
power, among conventional renewable energy sources, such as solar and falling
water.[5]
The American Petroleum Institute
likewise does not consider conventional nuclear fission as renewable, but that breeder
reactor nuclear power fuel is considered renewable and sustainable,
before explaining that radioactive waste from used spent
fuel rods remains dangerous, and so has to be very carefully stored
for up to a thousand years.[6]
With the careful monitoring of radioactive waste products also being required
upon the use of other renewable energy sources, such as geothermal
energy.[7]The use of nuclear technology relying on fission requires Naturally occurring radioactive material as fuel. Uranium, the most common fission fuel, and is present in the ground at relatively low concentrations and mined in 19 countries.[8] This mined uranium is used to fuel energy-generating nuclear reactors with fissionable uranium-235 which generates heat that is ultimately used to power turbines to generate electricity.[9]
Nuclear power provides about 6% of the world's energy and 13–14% of the world's electricity.[10] Nuclear energy production is associated with potentially dangerous radioactive contamination as it relies upon unstable elements. In particular, nuclear power facilities produce about 200,000 metric tons of low and intermediate level waste (LILW) and 10,000 metric tons of high level waste (HLW) (including spent fuel designated as waste) each year worldwide.[11]
Issues entirely separate from the question of the sustainability of nuclear fuel, relate to the use of nuclear fuel and the high-level radioactive waste the nuclear industry generates that if not properly contained, is highly hazardous to people and wildlife. Radiocontaminants in the environment can enter the food chain and become bioaccumulated.[12] Internal or external exposure can cause mutagenic DNA breakage producing teratogenic generational birth defects, cancers and other damage. The United Nations (UNSCEAR) estimated in 2008 that average annual human radiation exposure includes 0.01 mSv (milli-Sievert) from the legacy of past atmospheric nuclear testing plus the Chernobyl disaster and the nuclear fuel cycle, along with 2.0 mSv from natural radioisotopes and 0.4 mSv from cosmic rays; all exposures vary by location.[13] natural uranium radioisotopes in nuclear waste and naturally in the ground emits radiation for the prolonged period of 4.5 billion years or more,[14] and storage has risks of containment. The storage of waste, health implications and dangers of radioactive fuel continue to be a topic of debate, resulting in a controversial and unresolved industry.
Renewable resources
Main article: Renewable resource
Further information: Renewable
energy and Recycling
The Three
Gorges Dam, the largest renewable energy generating station in the world.
Natural
resources, known as renewable resources, are replaced by natural processes and forces
persistent in the natural environment. There are
intermittent and reoccurring
renewables, and recyclable materials, which
are utilized during a cycle across a certain amount
of time, and can be harnessed for any number of cycles.The production of goods and services by manufacturing products in economic systems creates many types of waste during production and after the consumer has made use of it. The material is then either incinerated, buried in a landfill or recycled for reuse. Recycling turns materials of value that would otherwise become waste into valuable resources again.
Satellite map showing areas flooded by the Three
Gorges reservoir. Compare November 7, 2006 (above) with April 17, 1987 (below).
The energy station required the flooding of archaeological
and cultural sites and displaced some 1.3 million people, and is causing
significant ecological changes, including an increased risk of landslides.[15]
The dam has been a controversial topic both domestically and abroad.[16]
The natural environment, with soil, water, forests,
plants
and animals
are all renewable resources, as long as they are adequately monitored, protected and conserved.
Sustainable agriculture is the
cultivation of plant and animal materials in a manner that preserves plant and
animal ecosystems
over the long term. The overfishing of the oceans is
one example of where an industry practice or method can threaten an ecosystem,
endanger species and possibly even
determine whether or not a fishery is sustainable for use
by humans. An unregulated industry practice or method can lead to a complete resource depletion.[17]The renewable energy from the sun, wind, wave, biomass and geothermal energies are based on renewable resources. Renewable resources such as the movement of water (hydropower, tidal power and wave power), wind and radiant energy from geothermal heat (used for geothermal power) and solar energy (used for solar power) are practically infinite and cannot be depleted, unlike their non-renewable counterparts, which are likely to run out if not used sparingly.
The potential wave energy on coastlines can provide 1/5 of world demand. Hydroelectric power can supply 1/3 of our total energy global needs. Geothermal energy can provide 1.5 more times the energy we need. There is enough wind to power the planet 30 times over, wind power could power all of humanity's needs alone. Solar currently supplies only 0.1% of our world energy needs, but there is enough out there to power humanity's needs 4,000 times over, the entire global projected energy demand by 2050.[18][19]
Renewable energy and energy efficiency are no longer niche sectors that are promoted only by governments and environmentalists. The increasing levels of investment and that more of the capital is from conventional financial actors, both suggest that sustainable energy has become mainstream and the future of energy production, as non-renewable resources decline. This is reinforced by climate change concerns, nuclear dangers and accumulating radioactive waste, high oil prices, peak oil and increasing government support for renewable energy. These factors are commercializing renewable energy, enlarging the market and growing demand, the adoption of new products to replace obsolete technology and the conversion of existing infrastructure to a renewable standard.[20]
Economic models
In economics, a non-renewable resource is defined as goods, where greater consumption today implies less consumption tomorrow.[21] David Ricardo in his early works analysed the pricing of exhaustible resources, where he argued that the price of a mineral resource should increase over time. He argued that the spot price is always determined by the mine with the highest cost of extraction, and mine owners with lower extraction costs benefit from a differential rent. The first model is defined by Hotelling's rule, which is a 1931 economic model of non-renewable resource management by Harold Hotelling. It shows that efficient exploitation of a nonrenewable and nonaugmentable resource would, under otherwise stable conditions, lead to a depletion of the resource. The rule states that this would lead to a net price or "Hotelling rent" for it that rose annually at a rate equal to the rate of interest, reflecting the increasing scarcity of the resources. The Hartwick's rule provides an important result about the sustainability of welfare in an economy that uses non-renewable source.However, nearly all metal prices have been declining over time in inflation adjusted terms, because of a number of false assumptions in the above. Firstly, metal resources are non-renewable, but on a world scale, largely inexhaustible. This is because they are present throughout the earth's crust on a vast scale, far exceeding human demand on all time scales. Metal ores however, are only extracted in those areas where nature has concentrated the metal in the crust to a level whereby it is locally economic to extract. This also depends on the available technology for both finding the metal ores as well as extracting them, which is constantly changing. If the technology or demand changes, vast amounts of metal previously ignored can become economically extractable. This is why Ricardo's simplistic notion that the price of a mineral resource should increase over time has in fact turned out to be the opposite, nearly all metal ores have decreased in inflation adjusted prices since well before the early 20th century. The main reason he was wrong is that he assumed that metals are exhaustible on a world scale, and he also misunderstood the effect of globally competing markets; in human terms the amount of metal in the earth's crust is essentially limitless. It is only in localized areas that metal ores can become depleted, as these local areas compete with extraction costs of resources elsewhere, which does have ramifications for the sustainability of local economies.[
013
Today the greatest attention in the
world is devoted to energy resources
because their use is usually
irreversible, but the supplies of
traditional fossil fuels (oil,
natural gas) are running out fast.
This is why over the last decades
attention is focused on renewable
energy resources and ways to
increase energy efficiency.
3
ENERGY SOURCES
NON
-
RENEWABLE
RENEWABLE
SECUNDARY
Oil
Natural gas
Coal
Nuclear energy
Sun
energy
Hydro energy
Wind
energy
Geothermal
energy
Biomass
energy
Tidal
energy
Electricity
Hydrogen
3.
